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Abstract Fish faced with stressful stimuli launch an endocrine stress response through activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal (HPI-) axis to release cortisol into the blood. Scientifically validated biomarkers to capture systemic cortisol exposure over longer periods of time are of utmost importance to assess chronic stress in governmental, wildlife, aquaculture and scientific settings.
Here we demonstrate that cortisol in scales of common carp ( Cyprinus carpio L.) is the long-sought biomarker for chronic stress. Undisturbed (CTR) and daily stressed (STRESS) carp were compared. Dexamethasone (DEX) or cortisol (CORT) fed fish served as negative and positive controls, respectively. Scale cortisol was quantified with a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method. An increase in scale cortisol content was found in STRESS and CORT but not in CTR and DEX fish. Scale cortisol content reflects its accumulation in a stressor and time dependent manner and validates the scale cortisol content as biomarker for chronic stress. Plasma analyses confirmed that (i) CTR, DEX and CORT treatments were effective, (ii) plasma cortisol of STRESS fish showed no signs of chronic HPI-axis activation, and (iii) plasma cortisol is a poor predictor for chronic stress.
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The expression of HPI key genes crf, pomc, and star were up-regulated in STRESS fish in the absence of a plasma cortisol response, as was the target gene of cortisol encoding subunit α1 of the Na +/K +-ATPase in gills. When lost, scales of fish regenerate fast. Regenerated scales corroborate our findings, offering (i) unsurpassed time resolution for cortisol incorporation and as such for stressful events, and (ii) the possibility to investigate stress in a well defined and controlled environment and time frame creating novel opportunities for bone physiological research. We conclude that the cortisol content in ontogenetic and regenerated scales is an innovative biomarker for chronic stress offering ample applications in science and industry. Citation: Aerts J, Metz JR, Ampe B, Decostere A, Flik G, De Saeger S (2015) Scales Tell a Story on the Stress History of Fish.
PLoS ONE 10(4): e0123411. Academic Editor: Daniel E. Crocker, Sonoma State University, UNITED STATES Received: September 24, 2014; Accepted: February 27, 2015; Published: April 29, 2015 Copyright: © 2015 Aerts et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. Funding: This research was financially supported by the Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research, the Laboratory of Food Analysis of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ghent University, the Department of Morphology of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Ghent University, and the Department of Animal Physiology of Radboud University Nijmegen. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: A financial interest is declared as a patent application was submitted “Quantification of glucocorticoids in fish scales as biomarkers for chronic stress” (Patent application No: EP1319845).
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Otherwise, the authors have no financial conflicts to disclose. This does not alter the authors' adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. Introduction Fish increasingly attract public, scientific and political interest around the world. Recreational and commercial fisheries are prominent in our societies; fish issues take a highly relevant position in discussions related to conservation biology [] and environmental protection efforts ( e. Effects of climate change, novel predators, novel animal-environment relationships on stress and as a consequence on fitness) [–].